Over the course of the thirteenth century, the Mongol confederation under Chingiz Khan and his successors conquered a large part of Eurasia extending from China in the east to Hungary in the west. In the process, they took large numbers of captives, keeping some as slaves and selling others (see The Early Life of Baybars). Those kept as slaves were used for a variety of purposes, but the Mongols were known for valuing skilled slaves especially highly and moving them over long distances to gain the greatest benefit from their talents. Captured engineers were assigned to imperial military units; captured weavers and other artisans were transferred to imperial workshops; and captured scholars were incorporated into the imperial court and bureaucracy.

Mongol soldiers first passed through Armenia and the Caucasus in 1220-1221, coming up from the south after their conquest of Khwarazm (an area now occupied by Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and eastern Afghanistan). This raid was followed by two more non-Mongol invasions, the first by Kipchaks from the north and the second by Jalal al-Din, the new ruler of Khwarazm, from the south. Then, in 1236, the Mongols returned from the north, this time with the intention of conquering and governing the region as part of their broader campaign in what is now Russia and eastern Europe.

Among the local accounts of this difficult period is the History of the Armenians written between 1240 and 1267 by Kirakos Gandzakets’i. Kirakos was born in Armenia sometime between 1200 and 1210, studied at the monastery of Getik, and became a monk. He then decided to continue his studies with the monk and historian Yovhannes Vanakan, first at the monastery of Xoranashat and then (after Jalal al-Din’s invasion) at a second monastery near Lorut. When the Mongols arrived for the second time in 1236, Vanakan and all his followers were taken captive and held for several months. In this passage, Kirakos describes their experiences. Kirakos himself learned Mongolian, and the Mongol commanders, in keeping with their interest in skilled and educated labor, employed him as a secretary. After several months, however, he managed to escape. He continued his career as a monk and scholar in Armenia until his death in 1271-1272.

Introduction contributed by Hannah Barker. This contribution CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Text translated from the Armenian by Robert Bedrosian and published in Kirakos Gandzakets’i, History of the Armenians, trans. Robert Bedrosian (New York: Sources of the Armenian Tradition, 1986), chapter 24. Public domain.

Chapter 24. Concerning the capture of vardapet Vanakan and those with him

At that time the great vardapet[1] called Vanakan was dwelling in a cave he himself had hollowed out, near the top of a very high rock which stood opposite the village called Lorut, south of Tawush fortress. He had built a small church in that grotto and stayed there secretly once his first monastery (opposite Ergevank’ fortress) had been ruined by the raiding of Sultan Jalal al-Din.[2] Here he had gathered many books, for he was an extremely studious man and especially God-loving. Many people came to him and studied doctrine with him. When the people multiplied, he was obliged to descend from the cave, and he built a church and rooms at the base of the rock, remaining there.

As soon as the land was destroyed by the T’at’ars and Molar-noyin[3] had come to their borders, the inhabitants of that village applied to Vanakan’s cave. It became filled with men, women, and children. Then the T’at’ars came and besieged them in the cave, while those folk inside had neither provisions nor water. It was summertime and extremely hot and they were scorched by the sun, as if in a prison. The children were parched with thirst and close to death. From outside the enemies shouted, “Why do you want to die? Come out to us, we shall give you overseers and leave you in your places.” They repeated this a second and third time with pledges. Those who were in the cave fell before the vardapet’s feet, entreating: “Go and save all of our lives, descend to them and make friends with them.” Now [Vanakan] replied: “For your sakes I will not preserve my own life if there is any possibility of [your] salvation. For Christ gave Himself up to death for us to save us from Satan’s tyranny. Thus we are obliged to show the same concern for our brothers.”

So vardapet Vanakan selected two priests from among them, one named Markos and the other Sost’enes, who later were ordained vardapets by him. We[4] too were present there studying Scripture in those days. [Vanakan] descended to them. Molar-noyin stood across from the cave on a hill, with a parasol over his head because of the heat. They had blocked us off during the feast of the Transfiguration.[5] As soon as they came near the commander, those leading them commanded them to bow to the ground three times (like camels when they sit), for such is their custom. When they came before him, he ordered them to bow to the east, to their Khan, their king. Molar-noyin then upbraided Vanakan, saying: “I have heard that you are a learned and venerable man, and your appearance reveals you as such,” for he was a fine-looking composed man with a glorious beard and white hair. “When you heard the news of our coming to your borders, why did you not come before us in peaceful friendship, so that I could command that all that is yours be left unharmed, great and small?

The vardapet replied: “We knew not of your good intentions, but out of dread of you we were seized with fear and trepidation. We did not know your languages, and no one came from you to summon us. Now when you called, we came before you. We are neither soldiers nor lords of goods, but exiles and foreigners assembled from many lands for studying our religion. Behold we stand now before you. Do with us what you will, granting either life or death.”

The prince then said to him: “Fear not.” And he commanded them to sit before him. [Molar-noyin] asked him numerous questions about fortresses and about prince Vahram – where he was, for he thought that Vanakan was a worldly prince ruling the country. Once the vardapet had told what he knew and that he was not a worldly prince, [Molar-noyin] ordered him to bring down the people of the fortress fearlessly and he promised that each would be left in his place with his overseers, and that he would build villages and fields in his name.

Then the priests who had gone with the vardapet called to us: “Come down at once, and bring what you have with you.” We descended, quaking, like lambs among the wolves, frightened, terrified, thinking we were about to die, each person in his mind repeating the confession of faith in the Holy Trinity; prior to leaving the cave we had communed in the revered Body and Blood of the Son of God.

The T’at’ars took us to a small fountain in the monastery and gave us water to drink, for we were very thirsty for three days. They then put us in some place of confinement and put the laymen in the portico of the church. They themselves stayed about guarding us during the night, for it was evening. The next morning they removed us to the head of the monastery, to an elevated spot, and searched to see who had anything they needed. As for what was in the cave, the vessels and vestments in the church, the furniture, silver crosses and two gospels worked in silver, these things they gave to the vardapet, but later took from us. Then they selected from among us men who could go about with them. The rest they ordered taken to the monastery and to the village and left their overseers there so that no one else would search them. They ordered the vardapet to remain in the monastery.

[Vanakan’s] brother’s son, the priest Poghos, was ordered to come along with us, following Molar-noyin. But the blessed vardapet saved his nephew for he was a youth and he himself came after [Molar-noyin] hoping that it might be possible to free us as well. And [Molar-noyin] made us travel around with him for many days, harassed and harried, on foot and even barefoot. The men appointed to guard us were Iranians, thirsty for Christian blood. They made our lives yet more difficult by all sorts of torments along the way, forcing us along so stringently, like horses on a raid. And if it happened that someone out of bodily weakness or lameness paused a little, they would mercilessly strike his skull and beat his body with sticks, so much so that we could not remove thorns from our feet or someone would attack. Nor could anyone drink water because of those forcing us on.

Upon encamping, they took and crammed us into narrow houses while they surrounded them and guarded, not letting anyone outside to perform his bodily functions. Instead, [the captives] relieved themselves in the houses, staying inside for many days. Therefore I cannot record all the discomforts which they forced us to endure. Nor did they let the vardapet stay with us, but entrusted him to others to guard carefully, far away.

Then they took me from my companions to serve their secretarial needs, writing and reading letters. During the day they made me travel with them and in the evening they would bring us to the vardapet, with a pledge. Again they would come and take me either on foot or on an unsaddled, untrained pack animal; and they did this for many days.

When summer had passed and autumn came and [the Mongols] were close to departing from our familiar land into distant foreign ones, everybody risked their lives and gradually began to flee by night to wherever they could. In this way by Christ’s grace, everyone was able to escape except for two priests who attempted to flee during the day and were unable to free themselves. The T’at’ars captured them and led them to the army and slew them before us to frighten and terrify us, for this is how they deal with all fugitives.

Then one day the marvelous vardapet said to me: “Kirakos.” [249] And I said: “What do you command, vardapet?” He said: “My son, it is written ‘Whenever you fall into adversity, forbear.’[6] It is necessary for us to reflect the advice of Scripture in our own lives for we are no better than the saints of old, Daniel, Anania and Ezekiel, who were pious in their captivities until God visited them and glorified them in their slavery. Let us also live by God’s protection until He visits us, if He so desires.” I replied: “Let us do as you order, holy father.”

It happened one day that the very prince who had captured us came to where we were being kept. Seeing us, he turned aside to us, and we went before him. He said: “What do you need? Perhaps you are hungry? I shall give you horsemeat for food.” For they indiscriminately ate all sorts of unclean animals including mice and all types of creeping things. The vardapet replied: “We do not eat horsemeat or your other foods. But if you wish to do good by us, let us go free to our home as you promised. For I am an old and sick man and I can serve you neither as a soldier nor as a pastor nor in any other way.” The commander said to him: “When Ch’uch’u-Khan comes I shall think about this.” Ch’uch’u-Khan was the overseer of his house and he had gone off looting with his troops. So we came before the commander two and three times, and his reply was always the same.

Finally the man returned from his travels and they summoned us to the prince’s court. [Ch’uch’u-Khan] was sent to us with a translator and said: “Is it not as you [Christians] claim that to give things to the dead benefits the deceased person’s soul? Well now, if giving helps the dead, why will it not save the living? Give us what you have and purchase your souls and then go, sit in your home.” The vardapet replied: “What we had were those things you already took – the crosses and the Gospels. Beyond that we have nothing.” The man then said: “If you have nothing, then you cannot depart.” The vardapet answered: “I tell you honestly that we have nothing, not even the price for a day’s meal. But if you will, send us to one of the fortresses surrounding us and the Christians there will buy us.”

They placed a heavy price on him, then reduced it, and sent him to the fortress known as Gag. [Vanakan] requested that our price also be paid with his, but [the Mongols] did not permit this, saying: “We need him to read and write letters. No matter what sum you offer, we will not give him up.” And we parted from each other in tears. The vardapet said to me: “My son, I shall go and throw myself before the Holy Cross calling upon the name of Saint Sargis beseeching the Lord through him for you and for the other brothers held by the impious [Mongols] so that perhaps God in His compassion will free you.” For there was at Gag a wonder-working Cross which helped all those in difficulties, especially captives. The holy martyr Sargis himself would appear to those who took refuge in it with all their hearts, and he would open prison doors, loosening the fetters and irons and physically lead them to their places. The fame of its miracles had spread throughout all peoples. They say that the Cross was erected by our vardapet, Saint Mesrop.

It transpired as the vardapet had said. They bought him for eighty dahekams. As soon as they had taken him, that same day, Molar said to us: “Do not be saddened at the departure of the great priest. We did not let you go with him because we need you. I shall honor you as one of my grandees. If you have a wife, I shall bring her to you. If not, I shall give you one of our women.” And he immediately gave us a tent and two lads to wait on us, saying: “Tomorrow I shall give you a horse and make you happy. Stay loyal.” And he left.

By the grace of God, it happened that we secretly fled and escaped that same night. We came to the place of our birth, to the monastery called Getik; it had been ruined by them, the buildings in it, burned. And we stopped there.

[1] A monk who had attained the highest level of theological education.

[2] Jalal al-Din was the ruler of Khwarazm. He raided the Xoranashat monastery in 1225.

[3] Noyin was a title given to Mongol military commanders.

[4] Throughout this account, Kirakos refers to himself using the first person plural.

[5] Fourteen weeks after Easter, on a Sunday falling between June 28 and August 1.

[6] Romans 12:12.

Discussion Questions

  1. What did the Mongols do with their Armenian captives? Why? Did all of the captives suffer the same fate?
  2. What kinds of people placed themselves under Vanakan’s protection? What strategies did he use to mitigate their experience of captivity? How successful was he?
  3. Why were the Mongol commanders unwilling to let Kirakos be ransomed? What strategies did they use to persuade him to stay? How successful were they?
  4. How did religion shape the Armenians’ experience of Mongol captivity? How did religion shape the Mongols’ treatment of and attitude towards their Armenian captives?

Related Primary Sources

Related Secondary Sources

  • Allsen, Thomas. Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  • Biran, Michal. “Encounters Among Enemies: Preliminary Remarks on Captives in Mongol Eurasia.” Archivum Eurasia Medii Aevi 21 (2015): 27-42.

Themes

Captives, Captive Narrative, Elite Slaves, Flight, Ransom, Religion, Violence